The Adolescent Brain and Neuroscience

 Cerebral cortex

Cerebral cortex, or cerebrum, is the outermost layer of the human brain and is generally associated with many, higher-order, brain functions such as perception, memory, association, and thought Cerebral Cortex | Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner. (2020). It is not only the largest part of the brain that is associated with the control of physical action, but is also considered to be the ultimate information processing center in the brain. In other words, the cerebral cortex is what determines intelligence, personality, motor function, planning and organization, language processing, and many more. 

Being an ELA teacher, I could safely say that most activities I conduct in the classroom are aimed at the student's cerebral cortex. For example, activities that aim to stimulate students memory or association capabilities are all processed in the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, instructional techniques, like scaffolding, inherently depend on the cerebral cortex to bring about necessary information from memory. Evidently, the simplest activities that require the most basic skills like reading and thinking, motor functions like speech and movement all take place in the cerebrum. 

Hippocampus

On the other hand, we find the Hippocampus to be a small, two-part, curved formation inside the temporal lobe in the human brain. Besides its association with the formation of new memories, it is also involved with learning and emotions. The hippocampus could be damaged due to disease or injury. Persons with hippocampus damage can experience loss of memory, or the ability to make new memories Thomas, D. (2020). In other words, all long term memory depends on the hippocampus. It is also involved in the detection of new events, places, and stimuli. 

In that, we see that no new learning of any type would take place without the help of the hippocampus. It consolidates new memories from short-term memory into long-term memory. God forbid, if any student would to hurt that part of their brain they would not be able to register any new events, in general. 

Researchers have found an equally important role for the hippocampus: feeding information to brain areas responsible for learning. "It is really important to think of the brain as an interconnected structure, with different parts that work together to produce our impressive mental feats" Arizona State University. (2019).

References

1. Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.  
2. Cerebral Cortex | Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner. (2020). Retrieved 4 October 2020, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/cerebral-cortex/
3. Thomas, D. (2020). Don't Let Your Hippocampus Stop You From Being A Successful Investor. Retrieved 4 October 2020, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2018/05/10/dont-let-your-hippocampus-stop-you-from-being-a-successful-investor/#1ba34c532694
4. Arizona State University. (2019). More than just memories: A new role for the hippocampus during learning: Study shows how the hippocampus provides information to other brain areas during learning. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 4, 2020 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190306081704.htm

Learning Domains

 Education is the process of imparting knowledge and bringing about desirable changes in the learner's behavior. Classroom instructions and activities are the gate way to the process of education. Accordingly, teachers of all subjects plan the objectives of any particular instruction, aka instructional objectives. In other words, instructional objectives refer to the goals of each instructional session. Leaning and/or teaching outcomes are usually based around instructional objectives.

The classification of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives includes three domains: The cognitive domain which is knowledge related, the affective domain which is feelings related, and the psycho-motor domain which is action related. All three domains are interconnected and interdependent. In other words, every educational activity is supposed to address at least one of these domains. However, for the sake of brevity, will only reflect on some of the preferred instructional activities related to the cognitive domain.

At the lowest level of the cognitive domain, we find the ability to recalling knowledge followed by understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating is at the top level of the classification. Teachers know that they have to come up with instructional activities that address the exploration and stimulation of these domains.

One of the basic questions facing educators has always been “Where do we begin in seeking to improve human thinking?” (Houghton, 2004). Depending on the scope of the new knowledge whether it is factual, conceptual, procedural, or meta-cognitive, I try to utilize the adequate tools for formative assessment of my gr.12 students. In other words, I try to use the right prompts that correspond with both, the type of knowledge and the cognitive process dimension. For example, in order to check the student's ability to recall factual information I would use the prompt "list".However, if I wanted to test his memory of a conceptual knowledge I would use the prompt "describe". Similarly, if I wanted to test students understanding of a procedural knowledge I would use the prompt "predict", as opposed to the prompt "construct" if I wanted to test their meta-cognitive capabilities. I make point of having the activity challenge revolve around answering said prompts. In my experience, using the correct prompt is key to realizing learning and/or instructional objectives.


Refernces
1.
Forehand, M. . (2010) Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology, Global Text, Michael Orey. (Chapter 3). Retrieved from https://textbookequity.org/Textbooks/Orey_Emergin_Perspectives_Learning.pdf

Barriers to Learning That Teachers May Overlook

 Based on child development theory, the Association for Curriculum Development and Supervision developed five tenets which underpin every student's rights to be healthy, safe, engaged, supported and challenged Slade, S. & Griffith, D. (2013) . Though educational theories that support a "whole-child" education have been around for years, many education systems concentrate on a tiny sliver rof students cognitive abilities and development. Thus, we see emphasis on transmitting content knowledge that is usually memorized by students and called upon in the same form it was recieved. Subjects like science, math, and arts usually dominate curricula. Understandably, not all teachers take into consideration the emotional and cognitive abilities of their individual students when they start a course. However, a "whole-child" education involves more than acquiring inert knowledge in any of these subjects. A whole-child approach to learning involves the development of students physical and mental health, social and emotional development, cognitive development, identity development, and academic development, as Whole Child Approach to Education, (2018) denoted. 

Based on their backgrounds and socioeconomic status, students bring different levels of skills related to attention, perception, and memory to the classroom. According to Data and Statistics About ADHD | CDC, (2016), the estimated number of children ever diagnosed with ADHD, according to a national 2016 parent survey is 6.1 million (9.4%). Many other students have ADHD, or similar disease, but have never been diagnosed. These students are more likely to have issues with behavior, academics, and overall learning. These are also the same students who need differentiation the most. 

Many teachers who are bound by heavy curricula and head of department guidelines to prepare students to sit for their finals, may not have the time to pay attention to individual students needs, let alone students with special needs. These educators forget that the classroom is a major developmental context for cognitive development. Even busy teachers can promote this by structuring a cognitively stimulating learning environment that is student centered.
In conclusion, be it an undiagnosed student with special needs, a busy teacher, or otherwise, many students with special needs are not getting the cognitive attention they deserve and the ACDS announced in 2007.






References
1.
Whole Child Approach to Education. (2018). Retrieved 11 October 2020, from https://chanzuckerberg.com/blog/explore-the-whole-child-approach-to-education/
2.
Slade, S. & Griffith, D. (2013). A whole child approach to student success. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy. 21-35. From https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287320346_A_whole_child_approach_to_student_success#:~:text=A%20whole%20child%20approach%20to%20education%20is%20one%20which%20focuses,child%20to%20fulfill%20their%20potential.
3.
Data and Statistics About ADHD | CDC. (2016). Retrieved 11 October 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/data.html

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Teaching and Technology

 Teachers have many functions and play many roles in the classroom that go beyond mere teaching or intellectual abilities. Teaching requires the acquisition and development of many complementary skills that are essential to instruction but not necessarily intellectual. The role of the teacher in the 21st century has developed beyond imparting knowledge. Teachers are not subject matter experts but rather qualified facilitators who carry out the mission of implementing a curriculum effectively. Technology has evolved from subject to be studied into a tool that is used to facilitate learning and instruction. Technology has become part of the educational process, but too often it is separate and not integrated into the learning experience Starr, L. (2016, May 10).

In my opinion, neither resisting being taught to use technology on the grounds that a teacher's role is more intellectual than technical or technological, nor adopting it as a personal preference is an answer to the use of technology in the classroom. Evidently, technology has become a major part in almost every field and education is no different. Embedding technology effectively into learning and assessment activities enhances the delivery of all types of curricula Smith, R., Killen, C., & Knight, S., (2013, September 9). The use of media and online resources has become an almost integrated part of education in the 21st century and this is not expected to change anytime soon. Most teachers today have grown without depending on technology as heavily as today's students do.

Teachers who refuse to learn how to incorporate technology into their instruction are essentially falling behind and will continue to do so. Technology is in constant state of development that is sometimes overwhelming to some teachers, especially the ones with old school habits or mentality. In my opinion,the incorporation of technology in education saves the teacher and the students a lot of time and effort. Furthermore, technology has made an incredible amount of knowledge available to all via a few mouse clicks. Teachers opposing the use technology in this time and age are effectively making their own instructional process and the students learning process much harder than it is supposed to be.

In conclusion, technology has grown to be an enabling factor in the 21st century education. Technology is indeed the sign of our times.

References

1.
Starr, L. (2016, May 10). Integrating Technology in the Classroom: It Takes More Than Just Having Computers. Education World. Retrieved from http://www.educationworld.com/a_tech/tech/tech146.shtml
2.
Smith, R., Killen, C., & Knight, S., (2013, September 9). Using technology to improve curriculum design. Retrieved from https://www.jisc.ac.uk/guides/using-technology-to-improve-curriculum-design